By Tanisha Gandhi
What is culture? Greert Hofstede, a Dutch social psychologist, defines culture as a shared mental programming, often referred to as the “software of the mind,” which influences how individuals interact in their daily lives. He also emphasized that culture is passed down through generations, and differentiates one group from another, resulting in unique characteristics for each group (INFIJOY 2022). Hofstede later described five dimensions of culture, one of which being individualism versus collectivism. There are thousands of small cultural differences which can be traced back to the much larger overarching divide between Eastern collectivist and Western individualistic societies. One example that highlights a broader contrast in how Western and Eastern societies attribute actions and outcomes is the Japanese expression “the nail that stands out gets pounded down”, which directly contrasts the common American beliefs of “being oneself” (Goleman 1990).
But how do our cultural experiences shape us? How do our disposition towards collectivism or individualism perspectives affect our ability to collaborate with others? How can we facilitate collaboration among diverse groups? We would like to use these questions as a foundation for our analysis, and are dedicated to unraveling the methods of cultivating an environment that seamlessly integrates self-expression and unity.
Previously we examined this concept through an intergenerational lens, where we found a large gap in intergenerational connections, including in Canada. Another factor to consider when observing this gap, is that of the differences in cultural perception among immigrant families that have moved between East and West. In an era of unprecedented global interconnectedness through technological advancements, cultural perceptions across generations are constantly evolving (Aslam, et al., 2018). Expanding upon this foundation, we delve deeper into the contrasting attitudes towards individualism and collectivism based on cultural backgrounds, and how they may influence collaboration. We tweak our initial questions as follows: How significant of an impact do differing cultural perceptions have on intergenerational disconnections? What does this mean for cross-cultural understanding?
Before we divulge into these questions, we must first define a few key terms including what it means to be a collectivist or individualistic society. Modern western individualism is known to have originated during the renaissance, it was released from the limitations of the stagnant medieval era economy, and was a promise of social reform for the individual’s dreams of progress (Mencher 1947). Over the years the word individualism was worn, torn, and transformed into our modern definition of the term which is increasingly intertwined with capitalism during the industrial revolution, and growing affluence in western countries (University of Pittsburgh 2021). Eastern collectivism on the other hand, has its roots in various cultural and philosophical influences, one of which is the concept of filial piety. Filial piety, deeply ingrained in many East Asian societies, particularly in Confucianism, emphasizes the importance of respect, obedience, and care for one’s elders. It places strong emphasis on the broader family unit and community (Lim, et al., 2021). To sum it up briefly; individualism emphasizes self-expression, freedom of speech, and innovation.While collectivist cultures focus on shared interests, harmony, and tradition (Hysi 2020).
Studies have shown that these cultural differences run deeper than people think. A project called The Culture-Cognition Connection explains how Westerners and East Asians have vastly different perspectives. Dr. Nisbett, a psychologist at the University of Michigan, explores how cultural backgrounds affect basic cognitive functions, such as attention and perception. Through monitoring eye-movements between American and Chinese people, Dr. Nisbett found that Chinese people tended to focus on the background much longer (Nisbett, et al., 2005). Additionally, in an experiment, Americans tend to recall a scene by describing focal points, while Japanese people begin by recalling the whole scene. These distinctions manifest in various domains, including categorization. Americans, for instance, have a tendency to classify objects according to their type. For example cows were grouped with chickens as they are both farm animals. In contrast, Asian participants tend to categorize based on relationships, associating cows with what they eat, such as grass (Nisbett, et al., 2001).
With these stark differences in mind, one might ask the question as to how this affects collaboration among diverse groups. The consequences of these fundamental attitudes and behaviors create vast divides. As Western societies place greater emphasis on individualistic goals, they prioritize the pursuit for personal happiness, in terms of promoting the need for higher self-esteem (Heine, et al., 2007). In a highly individualistic society, being a ‘good’ person is directly correlated to viewing oneself as competent, independent, and capable. Symptomatically, this often creates the tendency to over-inflate oneself and be overconfident in America (Moore, et al., 2018).In the interdependent societies of Asia, the qualities of being a ‘good’ person are more linked to meeting the inherent standards of their societal roles. Consequently, collectivist attitudes are known for generating friction, as people have a tendency to express clear in-group, out-group distinctions. This has fueled several ethnic fighting in places such as Sub-Saharan Africa, or India (Goleman 1990).
To measure the level of this discrepancy we use something called the Individualism and Collectivism Scale, also known as the Culture Orientation Scale. Created by psychologist Dr. Triandus, the scale is a tool used to measure individualism and collectivism in individuals. It captures their cultural orientations and attitudes towards social relationships, and helps researchers understand how people prioritize individual goals versus collective goals within their cultural context. A study by Kennesaw State University uses this scale as a means to explore the relationship between cultural orientation and attitudes towards aging and the elderly in the United States and China. The American participants scored significantly higher as individualistic, signaling that they are less likely to accept hierarchy and inequality in society. Most notably however, positive correlations were found between collectivistic orientation and attitudes toward aging and the elderly in both groups.
It is crucial to consider the cross-cultural differences between Eastern and Western cultures and their profound impact on familial dynamics and interactions, when examining intergenerational relationships, particularly involving immigrant parents. People from Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic (WEIRD) a term coined by Joe Henrich, countries have different psychological processes than those that do not. A study highlights this in context of generational-cultural differences of 1st-generation British- Bangladeshi immigrants and 2nd-generation British Bangladeshis raised in the UK to Bangladeshi-raised parents. Not surprisingly it was found that first-generation British Bangladeshis were more focused on collective values compared to non-migrants, and the second generation was somewhere in between. Both generations had stronger social bonds compared to non-migrants. When explaining behavior, the first generation considered situational factors more than personal traits, while the second generation had a mix of both. Interestingly, this finding goes hand in hand with The Culture-Cognition Connection study previously discussed.
We hope to reapproach intergenerational relationships particularly focusing on vertical cultural transmission, a.k.a the transmission of culture between parents and children (Trommsdorff 2012). A cross-sectional study by Cambridge of over 10,000 individuals consisting of three biologically related generations to understand how cultural transmission occurs and functions. It was found that intergenerational relations, particularly parent-child relationships, have been found to play a significant role in cultural transmission. These relationships influence both the process of transmission and its outcomes.Western mothers tend to focus on objects when interacting with their infant children, while Asian mothers emphasize close physical contact and building strong relationships. In Asian cultures, parent-child relationships are shaped by social obligations and filial piety throughout the entire lifespan. As adults, children feel a sense of obligation to care for their parents based on emotional interdependence, which differs from Western cultures. However, it’s important to note that the internalization of cultural values by children does not always guarantee their practical application in the future. The role of intergenerational relationships and cultural transmission, and whether they lead to continuity or change, depends on various factors (Trommsdorff 2012).
Through exploring several studies above, it is evident that different cultural perspectives, and intergenerational divides have profound impacts on individuals and their interactions. These perceptions, rooted in contrasting attitudes of individualism and collectivism, shape values, behaviors, and cognitive processes. The impact of these cultural divides becomes apparent in the challenges faced in intergenerational relationships. Understanding the influence of culture is crucial for fostering cross-cultural understanding and bridging the gaps between generations. By recognizing the cultural lenses through which individuals perceive the world, we can promote empathy, open dialogue, and mutual respect, ultimately fostering stronger intergenerational connections. Cross-cultural understanding becomes essential in navigating these differences and building harmonious relationships that transcend cultural boundaries.
The Colloquium 